Elements of Art
Formal Qualities of Art
While it is crucial to examine any given work of art in its historical context in order to arrive at an understanding of its meaning, it is also important to focus intently on the formal qualities or the basic visual components of a work of art. These include line, shape, form, space, color, and texture, among other things. Formal analysis requires careful observation and description, often using the special vocabulary of art. |
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Line
Line is the most basic of art elements. Any kind of mark- making tool—a finger, pencil, paint, etc.—can be used to create a line on a surface. The strict definition of a line is the path of a point moving through space. But beyond this technical definition, lines have a variety of characteristics such as length, width, and direction. Lines may appear hard or soft, bold or indistinct, uniform or varying in width. Sometimes lines are not solid but consist of a series of interrupted dots or lines that the eye connects to create an implied line. Think of prints in the sand or snow that imply the path of a person or animal. Sometimes we see the edges of objects as lines. The corners of rooms, the edges of doors, and the line where two colors meet all provide examples of how edges may be seen as lines. Artists use lines to express ideas or feelings visually. Horizontal and vertical lines create a stable and static feeling. Vertical lines cause the eye to move upward. Medieval churches were created with very high arched ceilings, designed to raise the eyes of the people upward toward heaven to promote a feeling of spiritual awe. Horizontal lines, such as the line of the horizon, suggest a feeling of peace and tranquility while curving and jagged lines create a sense of activity. Though the use of lines is perhaps most essential and noticeable in drawing and some kinds of printmaking, all artists use line in their artworks in some way.
Line is the most basic of art elements. Any kind of mark- making tool—a finger, pencil, paint, etc.—can be used to create a line on a surface. The strict definition of a line is the path of a point moving through space. But beyond this technical definition, lines have a variety of characteristics such as length, width, and direction. Lines may appear hard or soft, bold or indistinct, uniform or varying in width. Sometimes lines are not solid but consist of a series of interrupted dots or lines that the eye connects to create an implied line. Think of prints in the sand or snow that imply the path of a person or animal. Sometimes we see the edges of objects as lines. The corners of rooms, the edges of doors, and the line where two colors meet all provide examples of how edges may be seen as lines. Artists use lines to express ideas or feelings visually. Horizontal and vertical lines create a stable and static feeling. Vertical lines cause the eye to move upward. Medieval churches were created with very high arched ceilings, designed to raise the eyes of the people upward toward heaven to promote a feeling of spiritual awe. Horizontal lines, such as the line of the horizon, suggest a feeling of peace and tranquility while curving and jagged lines create a sense of activity. Though the use of lines is perhaps most essential and noticeable in drawing and some kinds of printmaking, all artists use line in their artworks in some way.
Shape and Form
Shape and form are two elements of art that are closely related to one another. Shape is what defines the two dimensional area of an object, whereas forms are objects that are three-dimensional, having length, width, and depth. For example, a square is a shape, but a cube is a form. A triangle is a shape; a pyramid or a cone is a form. When one draws an apple that in nature is a form, one draws a shape that represents the apple. If one creates an apple out of clay, that clay apple is a form. In a two-dimensional artwork, an artist may try to create the illusion of form through the use of shading, foreshortening, perspective, and other techniques. Shapes and forms may be geometric, such as circles/spheres and squares/ cubes. These geometric shapes and forms can be defined mathematically and are precise and regular. Some shapes and forms are described as being “organic” since living things tend to be freeform and irregular in shape or form. A geometric shape or form can convey a sense of order and stability, while organic shapes and forms tend to express movement and rhythm. Space is an element of art related to the organization of objects and the areas around them. The objects, shapes, or forms in an artwork occupy what is termed positive space. Sometimes these objects, shapes, or forms may be called the figure. The area around these objects, shapes, or forms represents negative space. In three-dimensional forms, negative space may surround the forms or maybe created as a result of open spaces within the forms. Three-dimensional artworks include, among other forms, architecture, ceramic objects, and sculpture. The two primary types of sculpture are freestanding, or fully in the round, and relief, meaning that the sculpture projects from a surface or background of which it is a part. Such sculptures may be in high relief— projecting boldly from the surface—or bas (low) relief— projecting only slightly from the surface of the sculpture.
Shape and form are two elements of art that are closely related to one another. Shape is what defines the two dimensional area of an object, whereas forms are objects that are three-dimensional, having length, width, and depth. For example, a square is a shape, but a cube is a form. A triangle is a shape; a pyramid or a cone is a form. When one draws an apple that in nature is a form, one draws a shape that represents the apple. If one creates an apple out of clay, that clay apple is a form. In a two-dimensional artwork, an artist may try to create the illusion of form through the use of shading, foreshortening, perspective, and other techniques. Shapes and forms may be geometric, such as circles/spheres and squares/ cubes. These geometric shapes and forms can be defined mathematically and are precise and regular. Some shapes and forms are described as being “organic” since living things tend to be freeform and irregular in shape or form. A geometric shape or form can convey a sense of order and stability, while organic shapes and forms tend to express movement and rhythm. Space is an element of art related to the organization of objects and the areas around them. The objects, shapes, or forms in an artwork occupy what is termed positive space. Sometimes these objects, shapes, or forms may be called the figure. The area around these objects, shapes, or forms represents negative space. In three-dimensional forms, negative space may surround the forms or maybe created as a result of open spaces within the forms. Three-dimensional artworks include, among other forms, architecture, ceramic objects, and sculpture. The two primary types of sculpture are freestanding, or fully in the round, and relief, meaning that the sculpture projects from a surface or background of which it is a part. Such sculptures may be in high relief— projecting boldly from the surface—or bas (low) relief— projecting only slightly from the surface of the sculpture.
Perspective
The creation of perspective or the illusion of depth is another important use of space in two-dimensional artworks. There are many effective techniques that artists can use to create an illusion of three-dimensionality. They may use shading and highlighting on the contours—the visible borders—of objects to replicate the manner in which light shining on objects lends those objects a sense of volume and space. An artist can also create a sense of depth in an artwork by placing objects or figures lower on the picture plane to make them appear closer to the viewer. Or, one can do the reverse and place objects and figures higher on the plane to make them appear farther away from the viewer. Artists can also manipulate the size of objects to create a sense of perspective—larger objects will appear closer to the viewer than smaller objects. An artist can also have closer objects overlap objects that are farther away to indicate depth and distance. Moreover, the artist can make objects appear closer to the viewer by giving them greater detail than objects that are farther away—replicating the manner in which our eyes are able to perceive more detail in objects that are nearer to us. Aerial perspective, also called atmospheric perspective, is a technique that takes into account the ways that fog, smoke, and airborne particles change the appearance of things when they are viewed from a distance. When an artist uses this technique, objects that are farther away will appear lighter and more neutral in color and will lack contrast of color or value.
Frequently, when we think of perspective, we think of the mathematical techniques that were developed during the Renaissance that can be used to create the illusion of space. Such techniques create what is called linear perspective because this perspective is founded on the visual phenomenon that as lines recede into the distance, they appear to converge and eventually vanish at a point on the horizon. We may, for example, notice this effect when viewing highways, railroads, or fence posts as they stretch into the distance. In employing linear perspective, the artist establishes one or more vanishing points on the real or imagined horizon of the artwork. Then, lines are carefully drawn to ensure a precise and extremely realistic depiction of interior and exterior scenes. Thus, in drawing a black and white checkerboard floor (a frequent feature in Renaissance interior paintings), the horizontal lines of the tiles are drawn as parallel, but the vertical lines—which we know are also parallel in reality—appear to converge or come together in a systematic way as they recede toward the back wall of the interior.
The creation of perspective or the illusion of depth is another important use of space in two-dimensional artworks. There are many effective techniques that artists can use to create an illusion of three-dimensionality. They may use shading and highlighting on the contours—the visible borders—of objects to replicate the manner in which light shining on objects lends those objects a sense of volume and space. An artist can also create a sense of depth in an artwork by placing objects or figures lower on the picture plane to make them appear closer to the viewer. Or, one can do the reverse and place objects and figures higher on the plane to make them appear farther away from the viewer. Artists can also manipulate the size of objects to create a sense of perspective—larger objects will appear closer to the viewer than smaller objects. An artist can also have closer objects overlap objects that are farther away to indicate depth and distance. Moreover, the artist can make objects appear closer to the viewer by giving them greater detail than objects that are farther away—replicating the manner in which our eyes are able to perceive more detail in objects that are nearer to us. Aerial perspective, also called atmospheric perspective, is a technique that takes into account the ways that fog, smoke, and airborne particles change the appearance of things when they are viewed from a distance. When an artist uses this technique, objects that are farther away will appear lighter and more neutral in color and will lack contrast of color or value.
Frequently, when we think of perspective, we think of the mathematical techniques that were developed during the Renaissance that can be used to create the illusion of space. Such techniques create what is called linear perspective because this perspective is founded on the visual phenomenon that as lines recede into the distance, they appear to converge and eventually vanish at a point on the horizon. We may, for example, notice this effect when viewing highways, railroads, or fence posts as they stretch into the distance. In employing linear perspective, the artist establishes one or more vanishing points on the real or imagined horizon of the artwork. Then, lines are carefully drawn to ensure a precise and extremely realistic depiction of interior and exterior scenes. Thus, in drawing a black and white checkerboard floor (a frequent feature in Renaissance interior paintings), the horizontal lines of the tiles are drawn as parallel, but the vertical lines—which we know are also parallel in reality—appear to converge or come together in a systematic way as they recede toward the back wall of the interior.
Color
Color surrounds us wherever we go and is a compelling element in art. Hue is simply the name of the color. There are three primary colors—red, blue, and yellow—from which all other colors are produced. Secondary colors are formed from the mixture of two primary colors: red and yellow make orange; yellow and blue make green; blue and red make violet. There are six tertiary colors, made by combining a primary and an adjacent secondary color: red and violet make red-violet; violet and blue make violet-blue; blue and green make blue-green; green and yellow make yellow- green; yellow and orange make yellow-orange; orange and red make red-orange. The organization of these hues into a visual scheme, known as the color wheel, dates from the eighteenth century, though the underlying concepts were developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century. The color wheel is a useful tool for predicting the results of mixing hues. Two important variables affecting color are the amount of light that is reflected and the purity of the color. The term “value” is often used when discussing the lightness or darkness of a color or of gray. Values in an artwork may be primarily dark or primarily light or may be contrasting from dark to light. The artist’s use of value contributes to the expressive quality of the artwork. In mixing colors, artists create a lighter hue by combining the color with white. Adding white to red, for example, makes a lighter red or pink. Artists create darker hues by adding black to the color. Adding black to red, for example, makes a dark red. A few words about black and white are necessary at this point. Black and white are not hues; they are called neutrals. When mixing black and white, artists can create a continuum of grays.
Intensity refers to the brightness or purity of a color. The unmixed primary colors, being pure in color, are generally considered to be the most intense colors. If pure colors are mixed, they become less intense. Adding black or gray to a color will reduce its intensity. Adding a color to its complement lowers the intensity of the color, making it more dull or neutral in tone. Equal parts of two complements, such as red and green, will produce a dull, muddy brown tone. Artists often use specific color schemes to produce particular visual or emotional effects. In the nineteenth century, scientists discovered the relativity of color; they determined that a given shade of red will look brighter or darker, more or less intense, depending on what other (similar or contrasting) colors are placed next to it. Thus, colors do not have a fixed or immutable character or value. In discussing art and color, we often speak of warm colors and cool colors. These color associations are culturally constructed and are not absolute. In the context of Western art, warm colors include red, orange, and yellow and are referred to as such because we associate them with the warmth of the sun, the heat of a roaring fire, or the dry grass of a late summer day. Cool colors—green, blue, and violet—remind us of cool forests, mountain lakes, and snow. Artists often use warm and cool colors to create space in artworks. Warm colors seem to advance toward the viewer while cool colors appear to recede. By employing contrasts of warm and cool colors, artists can create a sense of movement as the viewer’s eyes move over the surface of the artwork. Color may be local, arbitrary, or optical. Local color refers to the “true” color of an object or area as seen in normal daylight, irrespective of the effects of distance or reflections from other objects. For instance, in a work using local color, a grassy field would be green despite the fact that it may, in reality, appear bluish from a distance. Optical color refers to the effect that special lighting has on the color of objects. Consider how colors change in moonlight, at daybreak, in candlelight, or in artificial lighting. Artists who use arbitrary color choose colors for their emotional or aesthetic impact. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, artists have come to use arbitrary color schemes more and more often.
Color surrounds us wherever we go and is a compelling element in art. Hue is simply the name of the color. There are three primary colors—red, blue, and yellow—from which all other colors are produced. Secondary colors are formed from the mixture of two primary colors: red and yellow make orange; yellow and blue make green; blue and red make violet. There are six tertiary colors, made by combining a primary and an adjacent secondary color: red and violet make red-violet; violet and blue make violet-blue; blue and green make blue-green; green and yellow make yellow- green; yellow and orange make yellow-orange; orange and red make red-orange. The organization of these hues into a visual scheme, known as the color wheel, dates from the eighteenth century, though the underlying concepts were developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century. The color wheel is a useful tool for predicting the results of mixing hues. Two important variables affecting color are the amount of light that is reflected and the purity of the color. The term “value” is often used when discussing the lightness or darkness of a color or of gray. Values in an artwork may be primarily dark or primarily light or may be contrasting from dark to light. The artist’s use of value contributes to the expressive quality of the artwork. In mixing colors, artists create a lighter hue by combining the color with white. Adding white to red, for example, makes a lighter red or pink. Artists create darker hues by adding black to the color. Adding black to red, for example, makes a dark red. A few words about black and white are necessary at this point. Black and white are not hues; they are called neutrals. When mixing black and white, artists can create a continuum of grays.
Intensity refers to the brightness or purity of a color. The unmixed primary colors, being pure in color, are generally considered to be the most intense colors. If pure colors are mixed, they become less intense. Adding black or gray to a color will reduce its intensity. Adding a color to its complement lowers the intensity of the color, making it more dull or neutral in tone. Equal parts of two complements, such as red and green, will produce a dull, muddy brown tone. Artists often use specific color schemes to produce particular visual or emotional effects. In the nineteenth century, scientists discovered the relativity of color; they determined that a given shade of red will look brighter or darker, more or less intense, depending on what other (similar or contrasting) colors are placed next to it. Thus, colors do not have a fixed or immutable character or value. In discussing art and color, we often speak of warm colors and cool colors. These color associations are culturally constructed and are not absolute. In the context of Western art, warm colors include red, orange, and yellow and are referred to as such because we associate them with the warmth of the sun, the heat of a roaring fire, or the dry grass of a late summer day. Cool colors—green, blue, and violet—remind us of cool forests, mountain lakes, and snow. Artists often use warm and cool colors to create space in artworks. Warm colors seem to advance toward the viewer while cool colors appear to recede. By employing contrasts of warm and cool colors, artists can create a sense of movement as the viewer’s eyes move over the surface of the artwork. Color may be local, arbitrary, or optical. Local color refers to the “true” color of an object or area as seen in normal daylight, irrespective of the effects of distance or reflections from other objects. For instance, in a work using local color, a grassy field would be green despite the fact that it may, in reality, appear bluish from a distance. Optical color refers to the effect that special lighting has on the color of objects. Consider how colors change in moonlight, at daybreak, in candlelight, or in artificial lighting. Artists who use arbitrary color choose colors for their emotional or aesthetic impact. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, artists have come to use arbitrary color schemes more and more often.
Texture
Texture refers to how things feel or how we think they would feel if touched. From a young age we explore the surfaces of things and store away these tactile experiences in our memory. When we see new objects or artworks, we call upon our previous experiences to determine the quality of the surface texture. In the context of art, we make reference to two kinds of texture: actual and visual. Some artists use actual textures in their art. For example, a ceramic artist may create an actual texture on the surface of a pot or plate. In collages, assemblages, or masks, artists may use yarn, rope, shiny paper, shells, and other natural or manufactured materials to create actual textural effects. Artists who work in three-dimensional media exploit the textural qualities of their chosen material whether it is stone, wood, metal, or some other substance. Artists who work in two-dimensional media create visual texture—an illusion of a textured surface—in their artwork. For example, an artist may wish to simulate the actual texture of a straw hat, a glass vase, or an orange. Textures may be created by using patterns of lines or shapes that suggest texture. An artist can use the contrast of light and dark on a surface to create a texture that appears rough. Conversely, the absence of such a contrast will evoke a smooth texture. Shiny surfaces appear to reflect light while matte surfaces appear soft and dull. In addition to using the aforementioned techniques to create visual texture, painters can create actual texture with their brushstrokes.
Texture refers to how things feel or how we think they would feel if touched. From a young age we explore the surfaces of things and store away these tactile experiences in our memory. When we see new objects or artworks, we call upon our previous experiences to determine the quality of the surface texture. In the context of art, we make reference to two kinds of texture: actual and visual. Some artists use actual textures in their art. For example, a ceramic artist may create an actual texture on the surface of a pot or plate. In collages, assemblages, or masks, artists may use yarn, rope, shiny paper, shells, and other natural or manufactured materials to create actual textural effects. Artists who work in three-dimensional media exploit the textural qualities of their chosen material whether it is stone, wood, metal, or some other substance. Artists who work in two-dimensional media create visual texture—an illusion of a textured surface—in their artwork. For example, an artist may wish to simulate the actual texture of a straw hat, a glass vase, or an orange. Textures may be created by using patterns of lines or shapes that suggest texture. An artist can use the contrast of light and dark on a surface to create a texture that appears rough. Conversely, the absence of such a contrast will evoke a smooth texture. Shiny surfaces appear to reflect light while matte surfaces appear soft and dull. In addition to using the aforementioned techniques to create visual texture, painters can create actual texture with their brushstrokes.